Dietary Effects of Acetaminophen Tenderized Meat on Reproductive Hormones, Gonadal Weight and Histology in Female Albino Mice (Mus musculus)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.63147/krjs.v5i1.277Keywords:
Acetaminophen, meat tenderization, reproductive toxicity, ovarian damage, Swiss mice, hormonal imbalance.Abstract
The misuse of Acetaminophen (ACT) by homes and food sellers as a cheap and fast meat tenderizer is becoming a huge concern despite its potential health risks. This study focused on examining the reproductive toxicity of meat tenderized with ACT using female Swiss mice (Mus musculus). For 35 days, 30 sexually mature mice were divided into five groups; the negative control group received standard rat feed only, another control group received standard feed (40 g) + untreated meat (20 g), while the treated groups were fed standard feed (40 g) + ACT-tenderized meat (20 g), and then sacrificed at days 15, 25, and 35 respectively. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), progesterone, and estradiol were measured in serum, and ovarian tissues were weighed and examined for histopathology alterations. Statistical evaluation was performed using one-way ANOVA, with Tukey’s post hoc test applied for mean separation. The serum analysis showed a significant elevation in estradiol levels in mice exposed to ACT-tenderized meat for 25 days (8.49 mlU/ml) and 35 days (8.01 mlU/ml), respectively. Furthermore, A significant reduction in ovarian weight was observed in all treated groups throughout the study period. The ovarian weight decreased from 0.71– 0.74 mg in the control groups to approximately 0.10–0.11 mg in ACT-tenderized meat-exposed mice, with the least reduction recorded in the 15-day exposure group (0.103 mg). Histological examination of the treated groups showed disruption of normal architecture and degenerative alterations in ovarian follicles. These results imply that eating meat tenderized with acetaminophen may provide long term serious concerns to the reproductive health of women. Therefore, it is advised that public health awareness and regulatory enforcement be implemented to stop the abuse of drugs in food processing.
References
Al-Fahham, A. A., & Al-Nowainy, H. Q. (2016). The role of FSH, LH, and prolactin hormones in female infertility. American Journal of PharmTech Research, 6(5), 110–118.
Arendrup, F. S., Mazaud-Guittot, S., Jégou, B., & Kristensen, D. (2017). EDC IMPACT: Is exposure during pregnancy to acetaminophen/paracetamol disrupting female reproductive development? Endocrine Connections, 7, 149–158. https://doi.org/10.1530/EC-17-0298
Banihani, S. A. (2018). Effect of paracetamol on semen quality. Andrologia, 50(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/and.12874
Bazzano, M. V., Berkout, L., Bremmer, L., Weber, F., Hardardottir, L., Promm, M., Köninger, A., Arck, P. C., Bosurgi, L., Tiegs, G., & Solano, M. E. (2023). Prenatal acetaminophen exposure distorts ovarian macrophages with long-lasting consequences for gonadal function. Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 158, Article 103565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jri.2022.103565
Bekhit, A. A., Hopkins, D. L., Geesink, G., Bekhit, A. A., & Franks, P. (2014). Exogenous proteases for meat tenderization. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 54(8), 1012–1031.
Berkel, C. (2024). Inducers and inhibitors of pyroptotic death of granulosa cells in models of premature ovarian insufficiency and polycystic ovary syndrome. Reproductive Sciences, 31(10), 2972–2992. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43032-024-01643-3
Chen, Z., Sun, X., Liu, Y., Zhao, X., Guo, Y., & Wang, H. (2024). The characterization of developmental toxicity in fetal offspring induced by acetaminophen exposure during pregnancy. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 283, Article 116980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116980
Contestabile, M. (2026). Endometriosis and oocyte quality: Morphological alterations, developmental competence, and modifiable strategies for reproductive longevity. Cells, 15(3), 296. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells15030296
Dixon, D., Alison, R., Bach, U., Colman, K., Foley, G. L., Harleman, J. H., Haworth, R., Herbert, R., Heuser, A., Long, G., Mirsky, M., Regan, K., Van Esch, E., Westwood, F. R., Vidal, J., & Yoshida, M. (2014). Nonproliferative and proliferative lesions of the rat and mouse female reproductive system. Journal of Toxicologic Pathology, 27(1 Suppl.), 1S–107S. https://doi.org/10.1293/tox.27.1s
Edepli, B. G. (2026). Molecular mechanisms of ovarian fibrosis. Journal of Ovarian Research, 19(1), 12776365.
European Centre for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of Chemicals. (2002). Guidance on evaluation of reproductive toxicity data (ECETOC Monograph No. 31). ECETOC.
Ezugwu, A. L., Anaduaka, E. G., Chibuogwu, C. C., & Ezeorba, T. P. C. (2023). Meat tenderization using acetaminophen (paracetamol/APAP): A review on deductive biochemical mechanisms, toxicological implications and strategies for mitigation. Heliyon, 9(5), e15628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15628
Hashem, S. M., Al-Rekabi, F. M. K., & Ali, S. (2023). Evaluation of the acute toxicity of acetaminophen in mice. Iraqi Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 47(2), 81–87.
Kadhim, H. M. (2024). Impact of anti-Müllerian hormone, oxidative stress and lipid profile levels on female fertility. Medical Science Journal of Advanced Research, 5, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.46966/msjar.v5i4.244
Kauffman, A. S. (2022). Neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying estrogen positive feedback and the LH surge. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 16, 953252. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.953252
Lecante, L., Leverrier-Penna, S., Gicquel, T., Giton, F., Costet, N., Desdoits-Lethimonier, C., Lesné, L., Fromenty, B., Lavoué, V., Rolland, A., & Mazaud-Guittot, S. (2022). Acetaminophen (APAP, paracetamol) interferes with the first trimester human fetal ovary development in an ex vivo model. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 107, 1647–1661. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgac080
Lee, C. Y., Hwang, H., Park, J. S., Lee, S. H., Park, C. E., Cheon, Y. P., & Choi, D. (2023). Effects of acetaminophen on reproductive activities in male golden hamsters. Development & Reproduction, 27(1), 25–37. https://doi.org/10.12717/DR.2023.27.1.25
Madhusankha, G. D. M. P., & Thilakarathna, R. C. N. (2020). Meat tenderization mechanism and the impact of plant exogenous proteases: A review. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2020.102967
Marques, P., De Sousa Lages, A., Skorupskaite, K., et al. (2025). Physiology of GnRH and gonadotrophin secretion. In K. R. Feingold et al. (Eds.), Endotext. MDText.com. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279070/
McIlwraith, E., & Belsham, D. (2019). Analysis of palmitate- and bisphenol A-mediated changes in microRNAs targeting the novel reproductive peptide phoenixin and its receptor Gpr173 in hypothalamic cell lines. Journal of the Endocrine Society, 3(Suppl. 1), SUN-475. https://doi.org/10.1210/js.2019-SUN-475
Mohd Azmi, S. I., Kumar, P., Sharma, N., Sazili, A. Q., Lee, S.-J., & Ismail-Fitry, M. R. (2023). Application of plant proteases in meat tenderization: Recent trends and future prospects. Foods, 12(6), 1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12061336
Moles, A., Torres, S., Baulies, A., Garcia-Ruiz, C., & Fernandez-Checa, J. C. (2018). Mitochondrial-lysosomal axis in acetaminophen hepatotoxicity. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 9, 453. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.00453
Nielsen, B. S., Petersen, M. R., Martin-Gonzalez, J., Holmberg, C., Mjoseng, H. K., Frederiksen, H., et al. (2025). Paracetamol (N-acetyl-para-aminophenol) disrupts early embryogenesis by cell cycle inhibition. Human Reproduction, 40(10), 1860–1876. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deaf116
Okuthe, G. E., Dube, E., & Mafunda, P. S. (2025). Effects of pharmaceuticals and endocrine-disrupting chemicals on reproductive biology of aquatic fauna: Penguins as sentinel species. Journal of Xenobiotics, 15(4), 110. https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15040110
Perlman, R. L. (2016). Mouse models of human disease: An evolutionary perspective. Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health, 2016(1), 170–176. https://doi.org/10.1093/emph/eow014
Reel, J. R., Lawton, A. D., & Lamb, J. C., IV. (1992). Reproductive toxicity evaluation of acetaminophen in Swiss CD-1 mice using a continuous breeding protocol. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology, 18(2), 233–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-0590(92)90051-I
Rosner, J., Samardzic, T., & Sarao, M. S. (2025). Physiology, female reproduction. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537132/
Sen Halicioglu, B., Saadat, K. A. S. M., & Tuglu, M. I. (2021). The relationship of 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide toxicity with cell death, oxidative stress, and gap junctions in female rat ovaries. Reproductive Medicine and Biology, 20(4), 543–553. https://doi.org/10.1002/rmb2.12398
Shi, H., Shahidi, F., Wang, J., Huang, Y., Zou, Y., Xu, W., & Wang, D. (2021). Techniques for postmortem tenderisation in meat processing: Effectiveness, application and possible mechanisms. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition, 3, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1186/S43014-021-00062-0
Sophia, T. (2003). Female reproductive endocrinology. Journal of Reproductive Biology, 45(2), 89–95.
Tricotteaux-Zarqaoui, S., Lahimer, M., Abou Diwan, M., Corona, A., Candela, P., Cabry, R., Bach, V., Khorsi-Cauet, H., & Benkhalifa, M. (2024). Endocrine disruptor chemicals exposure and female fertility declining: From pathophysiology to epigenetic risks. Frontiers in Public Health, 12, 1466967. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1466967
Williams, C. J., & Erickson, G. F. (2012). Morphology and physiology of the ovary. In K. R. Feingold et al. (Eds.), Endotext. MDText.com. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK278951/
Wu, T., Huang, J., Li, Y., Guo, Y., Wang, H., & Zhang, Y. (2024). Prenatal acetaminophen exposure and the developing ovary: Time-, dose-, and course-dependent consequences for fetal mice. Food and Chemical Toxicology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2024.114679
Wu, X., Tian, Y., Zhu, H., Xu, P., Zhang, J., Hu, Y., Ji, X., Yan, R., Yue, H., & Sang, N. (2023). Invisible hand behind female reproductive disorders: Bisphenols, recent evidence and future perspectives. Toxics, 11(12), 1000. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11121000
Xu, X.-L., Huang, Z.-Y., Yu, K., Li, J., Fu, X.-W., & Deng, S.-L. (2022). Estrogen biosynthesis and signal transduction in ovarian disease. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 13, Article 827032.
Zeng, L., Zhou, C., Xu, W., Huang, Y., Wang, W., Ma, Z., Huang, J., Li, J., Hu,L., Xue, Y., Luo, T., & Zheng, L. (2023). The ovarian-related effects of polystyrene nanoplastics on human ovarian granulosa cells and female mice. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 257, Article 114941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.114941
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Germaine Ogunwole
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
This work is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0
